|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
The Ancient World: Architecture - Classical Greece The Aegean Civilizations: Early Development
That the the nature of life among the rigidly stratified Mycenaeans was radically different is clear in the fortified citadels and settlements found there. The Mycenaean culture (1500-1200 BCE) is thought to be the subject of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. They were an aggressive and insular people, qualities that are reflected in their walled fortresses such as the one found at Mycenae. The immense gateway to the fortress, the so-called Lioness Gate, is constructed of megaliths, or giant stones. The basic construction method here is of the wall type, with posts and lintels framing the few openings. The weight of the wall above the lintel in this gate is somewhat alleviated by a corbeled arch. The technique of placing rectangular stones in slightly overlapping courses until they meet in the center, known as corbeling, had already been used in Egypt and elsewhere. The use of massive stones in building has been termed "Cyclopean", for obvious reasons. The slender, Minoan-style column that separates the powerful lionesses in the pediment of the arch reflects Cretan influences. As with the Egyptians, tomb structure is here a major element of the built environment, and it took the form of the circular beehive dome. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae is approached along a walled passageway leading to the entrance, an enormous, 18 foot high doorway with a relieving arch. The arch is corbeled, much like we saw in the Lioness Gate. The main tomb chamber is underground, a circular room roofed in a "false" dome created by a corbeled vault. It is built up in regular courses leaning inward, carefully calculated to meet at the top in a single capstone or keystone . The domed tomb idea was later adopted by the Greeks and Romans in the tholos, a freestanding building. It is seen in many areas of prehistoric Europe, and can be found today in primitive structures called bories, in rural France. The Early Greeks: With the destruction of the Mycenaean culture by the so-called Dorian peoples from the north in the 10th century BCE, a period of cultural darkness descended over the region, which saw the disappearance of written language and an absence of artistic output in any form, and was to last for over 200 years. In the following period of rebirth, beginning around 900 BCE, a new Helladic language, Greek, began to dominate and with it came a shift in outlook. Greek religious beliefs involved a hierarchy of terrestrial and heavenly gods who, although considered immortal and possessed of supernatural powers, could assume human forms and were subject to human weaknesses. Among the most important of the "sky" gods, whose home was on Mount Olympus in northern Greece, were Zeus, the supreme deity, his wife Hera, goddess of marriage, Apollo, god of the sun, Poseidon, god of the sea, Aphrodite, goddess of love, Dionysus, god of wine and inspiration, and Ares, god of war. Greek architecture of the Classical era consists largely of sanctuaries to these gods on various sacred sites.The Greeks also invested in public administration buildings and facilities like market places and theatres in urban centers, especially the city of Athens. The history of Greek art contrasts dramatically with that of Egyptian art in that Greek artists were engaged in the exploration of human possibilities, and continually sought to improve upon their work by experimenting with new sets of ideals. The Egyptians desired permanence and continuity - the spirit ka, after all, lived for eternity. The Greeks were totally engaged in mankind. Time Line : The development of the art and architecture of Ancient Greece can be roughly divided into four major periods:
As in the growth and decline of any civilization, these divisions could be said to correspond to human growth and maturation. Beginning with the imitation of various influences and early self-awareness, the Classical Greek culture passed through an adolescent period of experimentation. The point in its development where balance and harmony are achieved lasts only a short time, This stage of maturity is usually referred to as the High Classical. It was followed by a slow decline and loss of influence. What is remarkable is how much was achieved in a relatively short period of time and during constant attack from northern and eastern invaders. The Classical Orders: All types of columns have a shaft and a capital; some have a base. Columns are formed of cylindrical sections of stones or drums joined together inside with metal pegs. The shaft may be a smooth cylinder, or articulated with shallow flutes or concave vertical indentations that run directly from the ground up the tapering shaft. The capital consists of a flared and rounded section and a rectangular pad, upon which rests the lintel or entablature.
The three primary Greek Orders are illustrated at right.
The Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens is perhaps the most completely developed example of the Doric. The Corinthian order came to be used on temple exteriors only in the Hellenistic period. This highly decorative style is elaborately carved in the spreading leaves of the acanthus plant. Early scholars claimed the tapered columnar form originated in the tree trunk, as can be seen in the Egyptians' penchant for rendering in stone the bundles of reeds used as supports in their domestic buildings. They also were convinced that Dorian entablatures were imitations of original wooden beam construction. Later observers have shown that structural discrepancies do not bear out this thinking, and that the Orders developed out of a desire to create a perfect balance and a calculated visual effect. Architectural Sculpture:
The Archaic Period:
Early experiments in the search for perfect elevational balance are also seen in the façade at Paestum. The columns are an archaic form of Doric, and of sturdy and massive proportions. They swell in the middle, a common attribute of Greek columns known as entasis. The entablature and triangular gable or pediment may have been filled with sculptural relief, which has not survived. Some coloured ceramic tiles have been found in the rubble. The knowledge that antique architecture was at one time colourfully painted and decorated is a relatively recent discovery in the history of archaeology. The High Classical Period: Between 480 and 338 BCE, Greece experienced relative peace, and with it came an extraordinary flowering of artistic and intellectual activity that centered in Athens under the rule of Pericles. The plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides were written at this time. Socrates was developing a philosophy of the ideal in human perfection. Individual artists, sculptors and architects were being honoured and recognized for their talents. The Erechtheion, second largest structure erected on the Acropolis under Peracles' patronage, has an irregular plan with several levels and porches. The most famous of these is the Porch of the Maidens. Instead of columns, the supports are in the form of caryatids, sculpted female figures draped in typical Ionic-style chitons. Although each is individualized and is asymmetrically balanced with weight on one leg, there is a symmetry in the disposition of the poses. The vertical folds of the draped garments recall the fluted column. The restrained solidity and simplicity of the Doric order reflected the rather severe moral outlook of the early Classical period. Later buildings on the Acropolis are of a more decorative style. The columns in the diminutive Temple of Athena Nike are of the Ionic Order, which originating in the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor. The order is characterized by slender columns with capitals of the Ionic volute form. This design increases the weight-bearing surface of the capital, permitting a wider spacing between the columns, which further lightens the appearance of the structure. The Ionic order places the emphasis on decorative elements more than its predecessor, the Doric style. In Athens, as in most ancient cities, the Agora was the center of political, social and commercial activity. By 400 BCE, it contained not only some large temples, but also administrative buildings where the governing council met, courthouses, a racetrack and several stoas, or marketplaces, where the city's business was conducted. The Stoa of Attalos, c. 400 BCE, was a very large example of this ancient mall-like building, a two-storied structure containing many shops. The building pictured here is a reconstruction. Although little remains of domestic dwellings from this time, we know from descriptions that housing was for the most part simple in form. Built of stucco-faced brick with wooden posts and lintels, the house contained the basic living spaces, sometimes with a small interior courtyard. The Fourth Century: The decline in the influence of Athens in the ancient world in the fourth century did not result in a decline in artistic creativity. Experimentation with style and subject matter can be seen during this period; classical conventions were observed but no longer strictly adhered to. Greek artists were in demand in all parts of the Alexandrian Empire, and experienced new influences. Architectural sculpture, always an integral part of the temple pediment, moved toward more monumental proportions, levels of realism and dramatic style. Monumental tombs were commissioned as showy memorials to wealthy or aristocratic patriarchs in this period. A prime example was the spectacular Tomb of Mausolos, a prince of Karia, at Halikarnassos in Asia Minor. The tomb is now lost but later writers described as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The tomb was a three-tiered rectangular mass with a stepped roof; the base was surrounded with over-scaled friezes depicting battle scenes between the Greeks and mythical monsters. There were also some 250 free-standing sculptures, of which the figure mentioned above is one. Hellenistic Art: After the decline of Athens as the dominant force in the eastern Mediterranean region, the Macedonians established control, first under Philip II and then under his son Alexander. This able young leader managed to garner the support of the Greek city-states, and with their help rapidly put together an empire that stretched all the way to Egypt, After his death in 323 BCE, the empire broke up into several regions, but Alexander's most lasting contribution was the spreading of Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean and Asia Minor. The artists of this last Greek flowering were more interested in the dramatic and the personal than in the reasoned and the ideal model; their work is more sensuous and virtuosic. It is concerned more with the everyday and the mortal. It is this style that the Romans so admired and adapted to their own purposes. This era is now known as the Hellenistic period. The term refers to those peoples within Alexander’s vast empire, including Syria, Egypt, Sicily and southern Italy, whose native tongue was Greek, although the period post-dates his death. At the time, Greek was the language of one-half of the civilized world. A new, very decorative order called Corinthian, already hinted at in the mid-4th century in temple interiors such as at Delphi, gained popularity. The Temple of Zeus, built in 170 BCE on the Acropolis, is an example of the style. A variation on the Ionic, the shaft of the Corinthian order is taller and more slender. Its capital is a composite of the Ionic volute and intricately carved, curling tendrils and motifs based on the acanthus leaf. On the architrave, or lower section of the entablature, is often a series of tooth-like projections called dentils. The Corinthian design has been used widely in revivalist styles up to the present time (see 19th century and late 20th century post-modern examples) Hellenistic architecture is characterized by an increase in scale and dramatic effect, reflecting the anxiety and instability of a culture that was under siege. The Roman behemoth was encroaching on all sides. This trend toward the gigantesque is seen in the theatre spaces built in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Early Greek theatre and ritual ceremonies had been performed on makeshift sites, using the rake of a hill as a natural amphitheater. Eventually tiers of seats were cut into the hillside and faced with stone. In the 5th century these outdoor sites served as stages for the great tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The theatre at Epidauros in the Peloponnese preserves the amphitheater shape but here the seating is built in, the best bench seats with backs reserved for dignitaries. This late theatre shows an increasing sophistication in the stage house. It housed the musicians and scenic elements, and could accommodate theatrical special effects. The circular orchestra was the main performance area, although the raised platform behind it, the proscenium, was used more and more. The proscenium was backed by a vertical architectural backdrop , known as the skene. The sight lines and acoustics of these amphitheaters could not have been improved upon. This model was adapted by the Romans into a free-standing structure, and has been recreated in theatre designs through the centuries.
|
||||
|
|
||||
 |
 |
 |
 |
|
The 
The palace complex at Mycenae shares similarities with contemporary sites at Tiryns, ten miles away, and Pylos in the southern Pelopponese. The audience hall or megaron of these palaces takes on a form that will be adopted and developed by the Greeks in their temple designs; the plan at right shows an open porch with an enclosed chamber, or 
The Greek peoples developed a distinctive form of government called the
The principle construction method in Greece, as in Egypt, was post (column) and lintel (entablature). Early temple builders, searching for more permanent construction methods than mud-brick and wood, began to use local stone and marble. With the inherent advantages of stone, they experimented with the design elements of the elevation of the temple exterior, varying proportion, arrangement, and embellishment. A number of standardized types, or 
The temple building in Greece was a reversal of the Egyptian model: compare the 
In Athens many public buildings - in the
A new form of building, used variously as a tomb and a meeting place, featured a circular plan, as can be seen in the famed Sanctuary of Athena at Delphi, right. This form, called a 
Sculpture in the Hellenistic period is the medium in which a movement away from Classical models can most clearly be seen. The state of Pergamon, established in the 3rd century